what persuaded psychologists to apply their expertise to problems in education

11.3 Attitudes & Persuasion

Learning Objectives

Past the finish of this department, yous will be able to:

Define mental attitude
Describe how people'due south attitudes are internally changed through cognitive dissonance
Explicate how people's attitudes are externally changed through persuasion
Describe the peripheral and key routes to persuasion

Social psychologists have documented how the power of the situation tin influence our behaviors. Now we plow to how the ability of the situation tin influence our attitudes and beliefs. Attitudes are our evaluation of people, ideas, or objects. We have attitudes for many things, ranging from products that nosotros might pick up in the supermarket to people around the earth to political policies. Attitudes are favorable or unfavorable: positive or negative (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993). They are complex. Specifically, attitudes are composed of three components: an melancholia component (feelings), a behavioral component (the effect of the attitude on behavior), and a cerebral component (belief and knowledge) (Rosenberg & Hovland, 1960).

For case, y'all may concur a positive attitude toward recycling. This attitude should event in full general positive feelings toward recycling (such as "Information technology makes me feel expert to recycle" or "I bask knowing that I make a small deviation in reducing the amount of waste that ends upward in landfills"). This attitude will exert a directive influence on your beliefs (i.east. increasing the likelihood of certain behaviors, while not perfectly predicting your beliefs): You recycle as ofttimes as you can, fifty-fifty if you cannot ever recycle due to extenuating circumstances. Finally, this mental attitude will be reflected by many thoughts, most likely a majority of which will be favorable given your positive attitude (for example, "Recycling is adept for the surround" or "Recycling is the responsible thing to do"; "Recycling is hard work").

Our attitudes and beliefs are not only influenced past external forces, but too past internal influences that we control. Similar our behavior, our attitudes and thoughts are not ever changed past situational pressures, just they can be consciously changed past our own free will. In this section we discuss the weather under which we would want to modify our own attitudes and beliefs.

WHAT IS COGNITIVE Dissonance?

Social psychologists take documented that feeling good virtually ourselves and maintaining positive cocky-esteem is a powerful motivator of human behavior (Tavris & Aronson, 2008). In the Usa, members of the predominant culture typically think very highly of themselves and view themselves every bit good people who are above boilerplate on many desirable traits (Ehrlinger, Gilovich, & Ross, 2005). Frequently, our behavior, attitudes, and beliefs are affected when we feel a threat to our self-esteem or positive cocky-image. Psychologist Leon Festinger (1957) divers cerebral dissonance equally psychological discomfort arising from belongings two or more inconsistent attitudes, behaviors, or cognitions (thoughts, beliefs, or opinions). Festinger'due south theory of cognitive dissonance states that when nosotros feel a conflict in our behaviors, attitudes, or behavior that runs counter to our positive self-perceptions, we experience psychological discomfort (i.e. dissonance). For example, if you believe smoking is bad for your health but you continue to smoke, y'all feel conflict between your belief and behavior (figure below).

Cerebral dissonance is angry by inconsistent behavior and behaviors. Believing cigarettes are bad for your health, but smoking cigarettes anyhow, tin can cause cognitive dissonance. To reduce cognitive racket, individuals can modify their behavior, as in quitting smoking, or change their conventionalities, such equally discounting the evidence that smoking is harmful. (credit "cigarettes": modification of work by CDC/Debora Cartagena; "patch": modification of "RegBarc"/Wikimedia Commons; "smoking": modification of work by Tim Parkinson)

Later enquiry documented that only alien cognitions that threaten individuals' positive self-image cause dissonance (Greenwald & Ronis, 1978). Additional research plant that racket is not merely psychologically uncomfortable just also can cause physiological arousal (Croyle & Cooper, 1983) and activate regions of the brain important in emotions and cerebral performance (van Veen, Krug, Schooler, & Carter, 2009). When we experience cognitive racket, we are motivated to decrease it because it is psychologically, physically, and mentally uncomfortable. We tin reducecognitive dissonance by bringing our cognitions, attitudes, and behaviors in line—that is, making them harmonious. This tin be washed in different ways, such as:

changing our discrepant beliefs (e.k., stop smoking),
irresolute our cognitions through rationalization or denial (e.g., telling ourselves that wellness risks tin can be reduced by smoking filtered cigarettes),
adding a new cognition (east.1000., "Smoking suppresses my ambition so I don't go overweight, which is good for my wellness.").

Information technology is often easier to change our attitudes or rationalize than to change our behaviors, especially past behaviors. Consider a classic instance of cognitive dissonance. John is a 20-yr-quondam who enlists in the military machine. During kicking campsite he is awakened at 5:00 a.g., is chronically sleep deprived, yelled at, covered in sand flea bites, physically bruised and dilapidated, and mentally exhausted (figure below). Information technology gets worse. Recruits that go far to week xi of boot army camp have to do 54 hours of continuous training.

A person who has chosen a difficult path must deal with cognitive noise in addition to many other discomforts. (credit: Tyler J. Bolken)

Not surprisingly, John is miserable. No one likes to exist miserable. In this type of situation, people can alter their beliefs, their attitudes, or their behaviors. The last pick, a change of behaviors, is not available to John. He has signed on to the military for iv years, and he cannot legally leave.

If John keeps thinking about how miserable he is, it is going to be a very long iv years. He will be in a constant state of cognitive racket. As an alternative to this misery, John can alter his beliefs or attitudes. He can tell himself, "I am becoming stronger, healthier, and sharper. I am learning field of study and how to defend myself and my land. What I am doing is really important." If this is his belief, he will realize that he is becoming stronger through his challenges. He and then will experience better and not experience cognitive racket, which is an uncomfortable country. In other words, John is likely to rationalize his uncomfortable situation by adding positive thoughts and changing his attitude towards the misery he has committed to since his beliefs cannot be altered due to the military contract.

<br />

The Upshot of Initiation

The armed services example demonstrates the observation that a hardinitiation into a group influences u.s. to like the groupmore, due to the justification of effort. We exercise not desire to accept wasted time and endeavour to join a grouping that we eventually leave. A classic experiment by Aronson and Mills (1959) demonstrated this justification of effort effect. College students volunteered to join a campus group that would see regularly to hash out the psychology of sexual activity. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: no initiation, an easy initiation, and a hard initiation into the group. Later participating in the offset discussion, which was deliberately made very boring, participants rated how much they liked the group. Participants who underwent a difficult initiation process to join the grouping rated the group more favorably than did participants with an easy initiation or no initiation (effigy below).

Justification of effort has a distinct issue on a person liking a group. Students in the difficult initiation condition liked the group more than students in other conditions due to the justification of effort.

Like furnishings tin can be seen in a more than recent report of how pupil effort affects course evaluations. Heckert, Latier, Ringwald-Burton, and Drazen (2006) surveyed 463 undergraduates enrolled in courses at a midwestern university almost the amount of endeavour that their courses required of them. In addition, the students were also asked to evaluate diverse aspects of the course. Given what you've just read, it will come up every bit no surprise that those courses that were associated with the highest level of effort were evaluated as existence more valuable than those that did non. Furthermore, students indicated that they learned more in courses that required more than effort, regardless of the grades that they received in those courses (Heckert et al., 2006).

Besides the archetype armed forces example and grouping initiation, can y'all recall of other examples ofcognitive racket? Here is one: Marco and Maria alive in Fairfield County, Connecticut, which is one of the wealthiest areas in the U.s. and has a very high price of living. Marco telecommutes from habitation and Maria does not piece of work outside of the home. They rent a very small house for more than $3000 a month. Maria shops at assignment stores for wearing apparel and economizes where she tin can. They complain that they never have any money and that they cannot purchase annihilation new. When asked why they practise not movement to a less expensive location, since Marco telecommutes, they reply that Fairfield County is beautiful, they love the beaches, and they feel comfortable in that location. How does the theory of cognitive dissonance apply to Marco and Maria's choices?

PERSUASION

In the previous section we discussed that the motivation to reduce cognitive dissonance leads united states to change our attitudes, behaviors, and/or cognitions to make them consonant. Persuasion is the process of changing our attitude toward something based on some kind of communication. Much of the persuasion we feel comes from outside forces. How exercise people convince others to change their attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors (figure below)? What communications practise you receive that endeavor to persuade you to change your attitudes, behavior, and behaviors?

We meet attempts at persuasion attempts everywhere. Persuasion is not limited to formal advertisement; nosotros are confronted with it throughout our everyday globe. (credit: Robert Couse-Bakery)

A subfield of social psychology studies persuasion and social influence, providing u.s.a. with a plethora of information on how humans tin can be persuaded by others.

Yale Attitude Change Approach

The topic of persuasion has been one of the most extensively researched areas in social psychology (Fiske et al., 2010). During the Second World State of war, CarlHovland extensively researched persuasion for the U.S. Army. Afterward the state of war, Hovland continued his exploration of persuasion at Yale University. Out of this work came a model called theYale mental attitude change approach, which describes the conditions under which people tend to change their attitudes. Hovland demonstrated that certain features of the source of a persuasive message, the content of the message, and the characteristics of the audition will influence the persuasiveness of a message (Hovland, Janis, & Kelley, 1953). In other words, who (i.e. source) says what (i.e. content) to whom (i.e. audience)?

Features of the source of the persuasive message include the credibility of the speaker (Hovland & Weiss, 1951) and the physical bewitchery of the speaker (Eagly & Chaiken, 1975; Little, Wegener, & Fabrigar, 1997). Thus, speakers who are credible, or accept expertise on the topic, and who are deemed as trustworthy are more persuasive than less apparent speakers. Similarly, more than attractive speakers are more persuasive than less attractive speakers. The utilize of famous actors and athletes to annunciate products on tv set and in print relies on this principle. The immediate and long term impact of the persuasion besides depends, however, on the credibility of the messenger (Kumkale & Albarracín, 2004).

Features of the message itself that touch persuasion include subtlety (the quality of being important, only not obvious) (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986; Walster & Festinger, 1962); sidedness (that is, having more than one side) (Crowley & Hoyer, 1994; Igou & Bless, 2003; Lumsdaine & Janis, 1953); timing (Haugtvedt & Wegener, 1994; Miller & Campbell, 1959), and whether both sides are presented. Messages that are more subtle are more persuasive than direct letters. Arguments that occur first, such as in a fence, are more than influential if messages are given back-to-back. Even so, if there is a filibuster afterward the commencement message, and earlier the audience needs to make a decision, the final message presented will tend to be more than persuasive (Miller & Campbell, 1959).

Features of the audience that bear on persuasion are attention (Albarracín & Wyer, 2001; Festinger & Maccoby, 1964), intelligence, self-esteem (Rhodes & Wood, 1992), and age (Krosnick & Alwin, 1989). In order to be persuaded, audience members must exist paying attention. People with lower intelligence are more easily persuaded than people with higher intelligence; whereas people with moderate self-esteem are more than easily persuaded than people with higher or lower self-esteem (Rhodes & Woods, 1992). Finally, younger adults anile 18–25 are more persuadable than older adults.

Elaboration Likelihood Model

An especially popular model that describes the dynamics of persuasion is the elaboration likelihood model of persuasion (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986). Theelaboration likelihood model considers the variables of the attitude change approach—that is, features of the source of the persuasive bulletin, contents of the message, and characteristics of the audience are used to determine when attitude change will occur. According to the elaboration likelihood model of persuasion, at that place are two main routes that play a function in delivering a persuasive message: central and peripheral (figure below).

Persuasion can accept one of two paths, and the durability of the finish result depends on the path.

The primal route is logic driven and uses data and facts to convince people of an argument's worthiness. For example, a automobile company seeking to persuade you to purchase their model will emphasize the automobile'southward safety features and fuel economic system. This is a straight road to persuasion that focuses on the quality of the data. In social club for the primal route of persuasion to be effective in changing attitudes, thoughts, and behaviors, the statement must be strong and, if successful, volition issue in lasting mental attitude change.

The central route to persuasion works best when the target of persuasion, or the audition, is belittling and willing to appoint in processing of the information. From an advertiser's perspective, what products would be best sold using the fundamental route to persuasion? What audience would about likely be influenced to buy the production? One instance is buying a reckoner. It is likely, for instance, that pocket-sized business owners might be especially influenced by the focus on the computer'due south quality and features such as processing speed and retentiveness capacity.

The peripheral route is an indirect route that uses peripheral cues to acquaintance positivity with the message (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986). Instead of focusing on the facts and a product's quality, the peripheral route relies on association with positive characteristics such as positive emotions and celebrity endorsement. For example, having a pop athlete advertise athletic shoes is a common method used to encourage young adults to buy the shoes. This road to attitude change does not require much try or data processing. This method of persuasion may promote positivity toward the message or product, but information technology typically results in less permanent mental attitude or behavior change. The audience does not need to be analytical or motivated to process the bulletin. In fact, a peripheral route to persuasion may not even be noticed by the audience, for example in the strategy of production placement. Product placement refers to putting a product with a clear make name or brand identity in a Boob tube show or moving-picture show to promote the product (Gupta & Lord, 1998). For example, ane season of the reality seriesAmerican Idol prominently showed the panel of judges drinking out of cups that displayed the Coca-Cola logo. What other products would be best sold using the peripheral route to persuasion? Another example is wear: A retailer may focus on celebrities that are wearing the same fashion of clothing.

Foot-in-the-door Technique

Researchers have tested many persuasion strategies that are constructive in selling products and irresolute people's mental attitude, ideas, and behaviors. One effective strategy is the foot-in-the-door technique (Cialdini, 2001; Pliner, Hart, Kohl, & Saari, 1974). Using the foot-in-the-door technique, the persuader gets a person to agree to bequeath a pocket-sized favor or to buy a modest item, only to later request a larger favor or purchase of a bigger item. This strategy employs peoples desire for consistency to get them to comply with a request (Cialdini, 2001), similar to the motivation that atomic number 82 to cognitive racket. Our past behavior often directs our futurity behavior, and nosotros have a desire to maintain consistency in one case nosotros have a committed to a behavior. The human foot-in-the-door technique was demonstrated in a study by Freedman and Fraser (1966) in which participants who agreed to mail service small sign in their yard or sign a petition were more likely to concord to put a large sign in their k than people who were non approached previously and were asked nearly the large sign in their first interaction with the experimenter (figure below).

With the human foot-in-the-door technique, a small-scale request such as (a) wearing a campaign button can turn into a large request, such as (b) putting campaigns signs in your thousand. (credit a: modification of work by Joe Crawford; credit b: modification of piece of work by "shutterblog"/Flickr)

A mutual application of foot-in-the-door technique is when teens ask their parents for a minor permission (for case, extending curfew by a half hour) then request them for something larger. Having granted the smaller request increases the likelihood that parents volition accede with the subsequently, larger request.

How would a store owner use the foot-in-the-door technique to sell you an expensive production? For instance, say that y'all are buying the latest model smartphone, and the salesperson suggests you purchase the best data plan. You lot agree to this. The salesperson then suggests a bigger buy—the three-year extended warranty. Afterwards agreeing to the smaller request, you are more than likely to also agree to the larger request. You may have encountered this if you have bought a automobile. When salespeople realize that a heir-apparent intends to purchase a sure model, they might try to become the client to pay for many or virtually available options on the auto.

SUMMARY

Attitudes are our evaluations or feelings toward a person, thought, or object and typically are positive or negative. Our attitudes and beliefs are influenced non simply by external forces, but as well by internal influences that nosotros control. An internal course of attitude change is cognitive dissonance or the tension we experience when our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are in conflict. In order to reduce dissonance, individuals can change their behavior, attitudes, or cognitions, or add together a new cognition. External forces of persuasion include advertising; the features of advertising that influence our behaviors include the source, message, and audience. There are two chief routes to persuasion. The central route to persuasion uses facts and data to persuade potential consumers. The peripheral route uses positive association with cues such every bit beauty, fame, and positive emotions.

References:

Openstax Psychology text by Kathryn Dumper, William Jenkins, Arlene Lacombe, Marilyn Lovett and Marion Perlmutter licensed nether CC Past v4.0. https://openstax.org/details/books/psychology

Exercises

Review Questions:

1. Attitudes describe our ________ of people, objects, and ideas.

a. treatment

b. evaluations

c. cognitions

d. knowledge

two. Cognitive dissonance causes discomfort because it disrupts our sense of ________.

a. dependency

b. unpredictability

c. consistency

d. power

3. In order for the primal route to persuasion to be effective, the audition must be ________ and ________.

a. analytical; motivated

b. attentive; happy

c. intelligent; unemotional

d. gullible; distracted

4. Examples of cues used in peripheral route persuasion include all of the post-obit except ________.

a. celebrity endorsement

b. positive emotions

c. bonny models

d. factual information

Critical Thinking Questions:

ane. Requite an example (one non used in class or your text) of cerebral dissonance and how an private might resolve this.

2. Imagine that you work for an ad agency, and you've been tasked with developing an advertising entrada to increase sales of Bliss Soda. How would y'all develop an advertisement for this production that uses a central route of persuasion? How would you lot develop an ad using a peripheral route of persuasion?

Personal Awarding Questions:

1. Cerebral dissonance frequently arises after making an important conclusion, called mail service-conclusion dissonance (or in pop terms, buyer's remorse). Describe a recent decision you fabricated that caused noise and describe how you resolved it.

two. Describe a time when you or someone you know used the foot-in-the-door technique to gain someone's compliance.

Glossary:

attitude

central route persuasion

cognitive noise

pes-in-the-door technique

peripheral route persuasion

persuasion

Answer to Exercises

Review Questions:

1. B

ii. C

three. A

4. D

Disquisitional Thinking Questions:

one. One case is choosing which higher to nourish—the public school shut to home or the Ivy League school out of state. Since both schools are desirable, the educatee is probable to experience cognitive dissonance in making this decision. In lodge to justify choosing the public school close to home, the student could change her cognition about Ivy League school, asserting that it is too expensive and the quality of education at the public school is but as proficient. She could alter her attitude toward the Ivy League school and decide that the students there are likewise stuffy and wouldn't make good classmates.

2. Although potential answers volition vary, advertisements using the central route of persuasion might involve a doctor list logical reasons for drinking this production. For example, the md might cite research suggesting that the soda is better than alternatives because of its reduced calorie content, lack of adverse health consequences, etc. An advertisement using a peripheral route of persuasion might show very attractive people consuming the product while spending fourth dimension on a beautiful, sunny embankment.

Glossary:

mental attitude: evaluations of or feelings toward a person, idea, or object that are typically positive or negative

central road persuasion: logic-driven arguments using data and facts to convince people of an argument'south worthiness

cerebral racket:psychological discomfort that arises from a conflict in a person's behaviors, attitudes, or behavior that runs counter to one's positive self perception

foot-in-the-door technique: persuasion of one person by another person, encouraging a person to agree to a small favor, or to buy a small item, only to later request a larger favor or purchase of a larger item

peripheral road persuasion: one person persuades another person; an indirect route that relies on clan of peripheral cues (such every bit positive emotions and glory endorsement) to associate positivity with a bulletin

persuasion:procedure of changing our attitude toward something based on some grade of communication

mitchellfacces.blogspot.com

Source: https://opentext.wsu.edu/psych105/chapter/11-4-attitudes-persuassion/